10 Personification Examples in Poetry, Literature, and More

10 Personification Examples in Poetry, Literature, and More SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Personification is an important literary device- as a form of metaphor, personification compares two things quickly and efficiently, often in a poetic fashion. But what is it? In this guide, we’ll discuss what personification is, what it does, and why so many writers use it, as well as a whole bunch of examples to help you get accustomed to identifying personification when you see it. This isn't quite personification, but it is cute. What Is Personification? Personification is pretty simple, but before we can get into what it is, we need to discuss metaphors. Personification is a form of metaphor, a literary device comparing two things by applying the qualities of one thing to another. One famous example is the Walt Whitman line, â€Å"And your very flesh shall be a great poem.† Whitman isn’t suggesting that your flesh is literally a poem- that would be both impossible and uncomfortable- but rather that your entire self is a work of art. Within the context of the Leaves of Grass preface, where this quote comes from, the quote means that, through love and patience and living with meaning and purpose, your entire self will have meaning and purpose, just as a poem does. Though Whitman’s quote is a metaphor, it’s not personification. Personification is a more specific type of metaphor in which something that is not human is given human traits. Whitman’s quote compares flesh, something human, to a poem, something inhuman, meaning it’s not personification. Instead, personification will look something like this quote from John Keats’ â€Å"To Autumn†: â€Å"Conspiring with him how to load and bless With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run.† Here, the thing doing the conspiring is autumn, and ‘him’ is the maturing sun. Neither of these things can conspire- autumn is a season, and the sun is a star- but for the purpose of illustrating how perfect the season is, Keats suggests that they can. In this example, Keats gives both autumn and the sun the human ability to conspire. That doesn’t mean that Keats wants you to picture the sun and autumn literally whispering in one another’s ears; he’s suggesting harmony and a natural order of things. As the sun matures (another thing it isn’t technically doing, at least not in this poem) into the later stages of the year, the fruit on the vines begins to ripen just in time for the harvest. As the sun moves further from the earth and the weather grows colder, the season switches to autumn, as if the two were consciously working together. Hence, the idea of conspiring. As you can see, personification can add a dramatic and more evocative flair to writing. If Keats’ poem had simply read, â€Å"The sun gets further away from the earth as the season changes to autumn, just in time for the fruit to ripen,† itwouldn't feel particularly inspiring or interesting. But when he suggests that the sun and autumn are conspiring, we get a much more vivid, memorable picture of what the seasons are like. This isn't personification either. Examples of Personification Keats is just one writer using personification- there are lots of different ways to use this literary device to great effect. You don’t even need to be world-renowned Romantic poet to use it! Basic Examples of Personification Since personification is just giving something that isn’t human the characteristics of a human, it’s very simple to do! Check out these examples: The stars winked in the night sky. Stars, having no eyes, cannot wink. But when you see this phrase, you know that they’re twinkling. The bridge stretched over the interstate. A bridge can’t stretch, but from this phrase, we get the mental image of it being long and gracefully curved. The cave mouth yawned. A mouth can yawn, but a cave mouth cannot. Still, we get the mental image of the cave mouth stretched wide. The smell of baking muffins welcomed us inside. A smell can’t welcome, but we can still understand that the narrator of this sentence feels welcomed by the homey smell. Poetry Examples of Personification We often encounter figurative language like personification in poetry, where a few words have to carry a lot of meaning. Some of the most famous examples in poetry are: â€Å"Because I could not stop for Death –He kindly stopped for me – The Carriage held but just Ourselves – And Immortality.† - â€Å"Because I could not stop for Death† by Emily Dickinson In this poem, Death is personified as a person driving a carriage. Within the confines of this poem, Death may in fact be a person; but Dickinson isn’t writing about a literal event that happened to her. She’s using her relationship with Death figuratively, illustrating how Death goes about its business with little regard for humanity’s work and leisure. â€Å"BlackberriesBig as the ball of my thumb, and dumb as eyesEbon in the hedges, fatWith blue-red juices. These they squander on my fingers.I had not asked for such a blood sisterhood; they must love me.They accommodate themselves to my milkbottle, flattening their sides.†- â€Å"Blackberrying† by Sylvia Plath Plathmakes a direct comparison between blackberries and humans- she says blackberries, like eyes, are 'dumb,' in that they cannot speak. But we also know that they can’t squander, they can’t be a sisterhood, and they can’t love or accommodate themselves. Plath isn’t trying to tell us that these are magic blackberries with all those traits. She’s using personification to illustrate her relationship with these blackberries, demonstrating a unique bond with them. Even without the context of the whole poem, Plath’s use of personification shows us that these blackberries aren’t just fruit to her. Literary Examples of Personification Poets aren’t the only writers using personification- it’s also valuable for prose writers! Check out these famous examples from literature: â€Å"[The eyes of TJ Eckleburg] look out of no face, but, instead, from a pair of enormous yellow spectacles which pass over a nonexistent nose. Evidently some wild wag of an oculist set them there to fatten his practice in the borough of Queens, and then sank down himself into eternal blindness or forgot them and moved away. But his eyes, dimmed a little by many paintless days under sun and rain, brood on over the solemn dumping ground†¦." - The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald If these eyes were attached to a human being, they might brood as an extension of the human. But the eyes of TJ Eckleburg are painted on a billboard, not attached to a human face. It’s impossible for them to brood, as they don’t have emotions. However, this quote demonstrates the mood that the eyes cast over the valley; it’s dark and dreary, and the way that Fitzgerald characterizes these painted eyes reflects that. "There is something subversive about this garden of Serena’s, a sense of buried things bursting upwards, wordlessly, into the light, as if to point, to say: Whatever is silenced will clamour to be heard, though silently. [†¦] Light pours down upon it from the sun, true, but also heat rises, from the flowers themselves, you can feel it: like holding your hand an inch above an arm, a shoulder. It breathes, in the warmth, breathing itself in." - The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood This paragraph has a couple of instances of personification. Buried things don’t really burst upward- they grow, but to ‘burst’ is to move suddenly, which is something that these plants don’t do. Likewise, Atwood says that the heat breathes. Because heat doesn’t have lungs, it can’t breathe, but it’s clear that Atwood is giving everything in Serena’s garden a sense of life so that even the heat has vitality. Pop Culture Examples of Personification You don’t have to look to books you’ve read in school to find personification, either! Everything from TV shows to music to video games can contain personification, such as these examples: Inside Out Though everything that happens in the movie Inside Out can be read to be happening literally- it’s a fantasy movie!- it’s also a form of metaphor. We know that in real life our emotions aren’t little humanoid figures running around pulling levers, but giving emotions like joy and sadness human characteristics encourages viewers to appreciate their complexity. Sadness isn’t bad, and joy isn’t always good- when we give them human traits, we see that any emotion can mean multiple things! "You try to scream but terror takes the sound before you make itYou start to freeze as horror looks you right between the eyesYou're paralyzed'Cause this is thriller, thriller nightAnd no one's gonna save you from the beast about to strike."- "Thriller" by Michael Jackson There are a few examples of personification in this song- in just this verse, terror "takes the sound" and horror "looks you right between the eyes." Logically, we know that emotions can't take or look at anything. But using that kind of language to describe fear gives it an agency that infuses this song with energy. It's not difficult to understand why this works so well; if you've ever been afraid, you know how it can affect the way your body feels, sometimes paralyzing you. That's what Jackson is tapping into in this song: the sense that fear can trap you and make you feel like you're out of control. What’s Next? Personification is just one of many literary devices at your disposal. Check out this list of literary devices and how they're used for a whole bunch more! Want to know more about how the Valley of Ashes is constructed inThe Great Gatsby? Learn more from this post all about how the Valley of Ashes works as a symbol! Understanding how personification works can help you in AP literature- just like this reading list for AP lit students! What kind of man so likes being described by his mother as the personification of "the beast" that he adopts it as his own nickname? Learn more about the strange life and times of Aleister Crowley with this article.

Notes on Madonna and Child essays

Notes on Madonna and Child essays Madonna and Child, a tempera on panel piece from about 1215, utilizes rich, deep tones and smooth brush strokes to convey the reflective nature of this piece. Mother and child are shown both looking down, which leads one to believe that they are in deep reflection. The overall tone of the painting is rather somber, as expressed by the deep colors and shadowed effect on the subject of the piece. The composition is traditional portrait style, with a naturalistic approach to the subjects in a plain, centered orientation. This allows for the focus to lie on subject and child, which can be inferred to be Madonna and Child. The background of the painting shows a supposed view of a country road through the window, which adds a simplistic and calming feel to the painting. It can be inferred that the painter wished to portray the deep reflection Madonna and Child are enduring. This is done through the composition as a whole, but specifically, the physical positioning of mother and child, the deep tones and color palette chosen, and the stance and direction of the subjects glance. The focal point of this piece lies in the mothers grip of the child. By the manner in which she embraces the child, it is apparent that she is in deep reflection. The fact that they are looking downward is also significant, as that provides a saddened connotation for their thoughts. This also permits the piece to maintain its sentimental feel, which is empathized by the viewer. It is profoundly remarkable that the described sentimental, reflective disposition of the piece could be empathized by the viewer, and that positions the artist as doing his job successfully. Inherently, the viewer feels that there is some source of conflict to the right hand side of the subject and her child, as neither subject is engaged at the painter painting their portrait, but something off to the side of the portraits frame. The deep tones and...

Canadas Dark Hour essays

Canada's Dark Hour essays During World War II, Canada was at war with Germany and Italy. Canada was fighting to protect the lifestyle that its citizens had become accustomed to. The soldiers in WW II gave their lives for the good of their great nation. Canada was also facing a major threat in the Pacific. The threat was the powerful nation of Japan. To that point in time Japan was the strongest military force that the world had ever seen. The Japanese government was strongly influenced by military leaders who were in favor of an expansion of Japanese power in the Pacific through military means. Japan had been sweeping through such strong military forces as China, Australia and Britain (Hong Kong). Japan was a major threat in World War Two to a lot of countries. Then when japan bombed Pearl Harbor in a surprise attack against the Americans. The Canadian government had to move quickly to protect its borders. The Canadian government decided that it was best that the Japanese be moved inland away from the coast. This was done for two main reasons, one to prevent spying and sabotage and secondly to protect the Japanese from anti-Asian violence. This decision was not only for the good of the country but also for the good of the Japanese people. The government made the right decision for the matter at hand. It is true that the Canadian Government noted that "no Japanese in Canada has been suspected of or linked to, an act of sabotage or espionage". Also in a RCMP investigation, the Japanese in Canada were not considered a real threat but the assessment was conducted before the country of Japan was officially in World War Two. These reports would have been outdated as the ideas and beliefs of the Japanese could have changed once Japan was at war with the world. People changed their views during times of change. As Japan officially entered W.W.II many passions of the people may have changed. The Canadian Government was faced with the treat of this poss...

How to Grow a Borax Crystal Snowflake

How to Grow a Borax Crystal Snowflake Do real snowflakes melt too quickly? Grow a borax crystal snowflake, color it blue if you like, and enjoy the sparkle all year long! This can be made overnight. Borax Crystal Snowflake Project Experience Level: BeginnerTime Required: OvernightMaterials: Borax, water, pipe cleaner, clear jarKey Concepts: Crystallization, dissolving Borax Crystal Snowflake Materials You only need a few simple materials to grow borax snowflakes: StringWide mouth jar (pint)White pipe cleanersBoraxPencilBoiling waterBlue food coloring (optional)Scissors Lets Make Borax Crystal Snowflakes! The first step of making borax crystal snowflakes is to make the snowflake shape. Cut a pipe cleaner into three equal sections.Twist the sections together at their centers to form a six-sided snowflake shape. Dont worry if an end isnt even, just trim to get the desired shape. The snowflake should fit inside the jar.Tie the string to the end of one of the snowflake arms. Tie the other end of the string to the pencil. You want the length to be such that the pencil hangs the snowflake into the jar.Fill the wide mouth pint jar with boiling water.Add borax one tablespoon at a time to the boiling water, stirring to dissolve after each addition. The amount used is 3 tablespoons borax per cup of water. It is okay if some undissolved borax settles to the bottom of the jar.If desired, you may tint the mixture with food color.Hang the pipe cleaner snowflake into the jar so that the pencil rests on top of the jar and the snowflake is completely covered with liquid and hangs freely (not touching the bottom of the jar). Allow the jar to sit in an undisturbed location overnight.You can hang your snowflake as a decoration or in a window to catch the sunlight. Tips for Success Borax is available at grocery stores in the laundry soap section, such as 20 Mule Team Borax Laundry Booster. Do not use Boraxo soap.Since boiling water is used and because borax isnt intended for eating, adult supervision is recommended for this project.If you cant find borax, you can use sugar or salt (may take longer to grow the crystals, so be patient). Add sugar or salt to the boiling water until it stops dissolving. Ideally, you want no crystals at the bottom of the jar. Keeping a Borax Crystal Snowflake Crystal snowflakes make nice decorations or Christmas tree ornaments. Its possible to save the snowflakes to use from one year to the next, providing they are stored properly. Borax will react with water in the air to form a white layer. If this is undesirable, the best way to prevent it to store the snowflakes in a sealed container with a desiccant. Gently wrap each snowflake in tissue paper or a paper towel.Place the wrapped snowflake in a zipper-top plastic bag.Add a small packet of silica gel. These are included in many products, like shoes and electronics, so most people have them. Otherwise, silica gel beads may be purchased at craft stores.Seal the bag.

Learning Theories of Albert Bendura Research Paper

Learning Theories of Albert Bendura - Research Paper Example Similarly, Bandura held that all sorts of learning cannot be products of reinforcement and held that social and psychological factors are associated with the process of learning. He propagated the theory of social cognitive learning and emphasized on observational learning and modeling. Similarly, Bandura also introduced several other important concepts, including reciprocal determinism, self-efficacy, self-regulation which have been beneficial to the understanding of human learning and subsequent behavior formation. In short, Bandura advocates behavior modeling and observational learning whereby a person observes and then imitates the behavior of people who are around him and whose actions motivate him.  Ã‚   While the behavioralists held that it is the environment that causes one’s behavior, Bandura went a step forward and propagated his reciprocal determinism whereby he argued that â€Å"behavior causes environment† just as environment causes behavior (Boeree 2006). He viewed human personality as an interaction of three factors-â€Å"the environment, behavior, and the person’s psychological processes† and believed that man’s cognitive faculties play a pivotal role in the formation of one’s personality (Boeree 2006). The psychological processes comprise of one’s ability to entertain images in minds and language. Bandura thus believed that learning occurs in the social context and that people learn from one another.  Ã‚   The social learning theory has been considered as Bandura’s major contribution to the field of psychology and learning. The social learning theory blends together cognitive and behavioral frameworks and the theory stresses the importance of observing and modeling on the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. For Engler (2008), Bandura maintains an agentic perspective in his socio-cognitive view of personality.  

Education Funding Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Education Funding - Research Paper Example From its beginnings, debate and contention has surrounded the funding of education: with primarily imbalances and inequities being pointed to as major problems within the US education system. The initial legislation making Federal support possible was enacted in 1965, with the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) according to which federal grants could support elementary and secondary schoolchildren from lower-income families. At the same time, the federal funds were directed towards school libraries, textbooks, education centers and services, State education agencies, research in education, and professional development for education staff (Spellings, 2005, website). Again in 2001 federal funding was allocated to national education with the No Child left behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) intending to ensure that the achievement levels of all students, nationwide, are raised, and that the achievement gap across the nation is narrowed (Federal Education Budget Project website (febp), 2011). Notably, historical court decisions have continually favored the idea that American education should be made more equal. The United States Supreme Court (USSC) decision in the Brown v. Board of Education overturned on constitutional grounds, for example, the â€Å"separate, but equal† court decision in the Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). The outcome of the San Antonio v. Rodriguez (1973) case went further in this move toward equalization of education, by recognizing education as a fundamental right, and this meant that States had to fund education equitably. But in the matter of increased funding for education, the courts have been less successful. The courts are able to interpret and rule on existing law, but cannot in effect change it. Funding for K-12 education is legislated, not judicially determined. The education funding issue it appears will have to be solved by the interest groups surrounding it – the parents, administrators, teachers and legislators who feel the effects of changes in educational funding most directly (Sanchez, 2011). And the consistently decreasing federal and State spend on education is clear to observe. By the 2004-2005 financial year federal spending on education was estimated to be $536 billion, an allocation that exceeded national tax-spend on defense (Spellings, 2005, website); in 2010, the education discretionary budget was $64.1 billion; and in 2011, the request for the 2012-13 financial year for the discretionary education budget is $77.4 billion (U.S. Department of Education website (A), 2011). In nominal terms, educational funding actually declined between 2006 and 2008, and thanks to economic stimulus legislation, showed a one-year real growth in only in 2009 (febp website, 2011). At the end of 2010, though, the federal stimulus money had been spent. States faced serious shortages, and anticipated that they would have to lay off thousands, and cancel numerous popular school programs in many States. Although they had saved teachers’ jobs, States had cut their own expenditure on education, and replaced these shortfalls in their budgets with stimulus money (Cavanagh & Hollingsworth, 2011). With the current view that reform rather than increased spending is the route to take, and that federal subsidies will continue to be cut for the foreseeable future, opposition to the direction being taken by the Obama administration’s proposals has been widespread. An important group of

Rhetorical Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Rhetorical Critique - Essay Example If the needs of a particular group are met then it would be said that the writer was effective in his work. In this case they have to employ the language in an effective manner so as to meet a certain rhetoric situation (Wilhoit 41-45). Jonathan Riel the author of Obama and Reagan: A Rhetoric critique and declaration of not war in Libya targets the same population in addressing the challenges and issues affecting the American society. In his first article that touches on Obama and Reagan, he tends to draw two parallel rhetoric lines between the two leaders. His focus on Obamas campaign turns out to be rhetoric. According to him Obamas mode of communications changes immediately the campaign is over. In this case it implies that governing cannot be the same as running or organizing for a campaign. For instance, Obama employs the use of impersonal style of communication which on his side differs a lot from the persuasion used for the public especially if one is running a campaign. This case greatly differs from the type of communication of any governmental official once elected in office. His speech was compared to Reagan style of speech that was challenging. The author of this blog tends to be bias against Obamas administration; he tries to capture the attention of his audience by portraying Obamas organization as an organization that seeks the merciful help of his citizens which is only applicable when seeking for votes but his reach by the citizens on his office seems to be impossible. The main aim of bringing this point is to ridicule the administration and also to provoke the citizens (Lanham 58). The author tries to use persuasive and provoking to the audience by pointing out that Obama has a very poor view of Reagan administration. In this regard, he does not come out with proper reasoning to support this but instead he says that Obama portrayal of Reagan leadership was that of one who could not steer the American economy forward. His argument seeks to dema nd and seek his audience attention. Nevada interview has been known to have attracted a huge crowd of scholars of the Rhetoric communication. His style of communication during the interview employed the use of keen attention by the public as persuasive. The author also tries to portray how other leaders have viewed Obama (Riehl n.d). His idea of the American dream is critiqued because Reagan was the official party property of the Republican. The American 40th president presented his speech which was viewed by the blogger as rhetorical act the speech was made to the public which demonstrated no signs of campaigns. Obama is believed to have integrated all the elements to form his own rhetoric. Reagan speech revolved much on the future of the America on the other hand Obama opinion is to overcome the presidency of the opposing party which he relates to future. Obamas speech was concerned with uniting all races of the American people. He preaches the message of hope of the American peop le. This message is also preached by Reagan on his public addresses. These two share the same feature in the sense that they both emphasize the need for positive growth in the American society (Lanham 71-80). This is seen as aspirations of the people of the people. Reagan had an aspect of blaming the fore fathers this aspect was absent on Obama this is portrayed in his speeches where he demonstrates how the slaves were able to fight

How a peace inititative started from private american university can Case Study

How a peace inititative started from private american university can save nigeria - Case Study Example Students are advised to spend sometime away from normal class hours, to research on the impact of terror on the society and the prospects for peace. This case-study requires students to come up with peace strategies. These strategies should reflect a growth-based university that serves the needs of the society. The university’s president is charged with the responsibility of developing a plan of five years that will see the university attain its target. The faculty will cooperate with the students to contribute to the growth of the university into what its founder desired it to be. The results of this case study will have an impact on northern Nigeria, whole of Nigeria and Africa at large. The university has developed a strategic plan to run for five years, beginning in 2011 with the approval of the board. The main goal of the university is to become an institution that promotes development in Nigeria and Africa at large. In this way, the faculty and students are motivated to work towards attaining this goal. In particular, students are encouraged to take up leadership courses that can prepare them to lead the community and the country in future. By taking up these classes, students will use the knowledge acquired to transform the society and bring about peaceful co-existence. The university has come up with a peace initiative, the first of its kind in Nigeria, to bring about peace and harmony in northern Nigeria. This peace initiative was occasioned by the rise in terrorism and violence among communities living in this region. Nigeria is situated in Africa to the west and is one of the largest countries in that region. Today, Nigeria is reported to be the most highly inhabited country in Africa. Nigeria has had its fair share of challenges since independence. Governance and the fight against poverty have proved to be an

Investment Advice for Microsoft Research Proposal

Investment Advice for Microsoft - Research Proposal Example Microsoft - major industry player - is headed by Mr. Steven A. Balmer, Microsoft’s 49-year old Chief Executive Officer (CEO).   The company’s co-founder, the illustrious Mr. Bill Gates, also sits in the Board of Directors and acts as its Chief Technological Architect.   As at end of the fiscal year 2005, Mr. Balmer along with the other directors of the company received an average annual salary of about $1.0 million each. As a global company, Microsoft operates in various countries across the world.   The headquarter is located at One Microsoft Way in Redmond, Washington D.C.   Direct competitors of Microsoft include other formidable companies such as Google Inc., International Business Machines Corp. (IBM) and Oracle Corp.   In terms of sales, Microsoft came in second to IBM as at end-June 2005.   However, Microsoft has posted the highest net income as compared to other industry players. Based on the above financial highlights, it can be seen that sales of Microsoft are steadily accelerating as evidenced by the moderate sales growth in the last three years.   In the same way, the income the company generated as at end-June 2005 has recovered from the decline in the previous year.   The sales and income posted by Microsoft are well above the industry average in 2005. Similarly, Microsoft has consistently proven its ability to convert sales into income in the past three years as seen in the company’s net profit margin.   Its 3-year average of 28% is higher than the industry average of only 23.5%. In terms of liquidity, Microsoft is highly liquid since it has more than sufficient current assets to cover its current liabilities.   As such it has a high current ratio that sends a positive signal to investors.

Impact of Poverty on Children Essay Example for Free

Impact of Poverty on Children Essay According to data from UNICEF, a child in the United States is more likely to live in poverty than any other developed nation (American Psychological Association, 2012) Children living in poverty suffer from lack of nutrition. Lack of nutrition can lead to premature birth and/or low birth weight (APA, 2012). Inadequate access to healthy foods can lead to obesity (Dalton, 2007). Lack of food can lead to hunger or food insecurity (APA, 2012). Malnutrition can lead to deficits in cognitive and social development (APA, 2012). Failure to thrive can be a result of under nutrition (APA, 2012). According to the American Psychological Association (2012) poverty can lead to poor academic achievement. Stress connected with living in poverty affects concentration and memory (APA, 2012). Lack of encouragement to promote literacy and reading readiness (Cuthrell, Stapleton, Ledford, 2010). No exposure to activities such as museums and camps (Cuthrell et al., 2010). Several states with school districts in low-income areas receive much less in state and local funding than other school districts (Hutchinson, 2013). Poverty and lack of insurance affects children’s health. Barrier to children receiving proper vaccinations (Becton, Lee, Nieman, 2008). Children are a greater risk of behavioral and emotional issues (APA, 2012). Increased risk of asthma, anemia, and pneumonia (APA, 2012). Exposure to lead and other environmental contaminants (APA, 2012). Micro social work Working with families with children to provide services for food and health care. Collaborating with other agencies to provide services such as health departments, community service boards, and mental health service providers. Working with schools to ensure child(ren)’s needs being met. Assisting family with nutritional education and access to healthy foods. Macro social work Work with community to increase support for Head Start and preschool programs for all children. Policy and laws must address the lack availability of services and health insurance for children living in poverty. Advocate for school systems to better educate teachers to deal with children living in poverty – hire teachers who care about student’s achievements (Cuthrell et al., 2010). Encourage school boards to eliminate all sugary foods and drinks from school campuses. Encourage communities to be proactive in assisting families living in poverty with food and educational programs. Work with policy to promote increase in wages and employment opportunities (Fass et al., 2009). Social Constructionist Perspective Children in poverty have a place in society – do not move up in class. Children in poverty have certain characteristics: not intelligent, slow-minded, dirty, obese, wanting hand-outs, criminals. Children in poverty should not aspire to improve their circumstances. Society class structure gives the need for children and families to live in poverty. Poverty is accepted as a norm – need change of thinking. Social Behavior Perspective Children in poverty expect to grow up to live in poverty. Children in poverty thinking is reinforced by their environment. Children in  poverty do not have high expectations or goals. Children living in poverty continue the cycle of the parents and grandparents previously. Conflict Perspective Children in poverty are a non-dominant group. Children in poverty have no voice. Children in poverty are results of social and economic injustice – unequal division of power. Children in poverty affect all facets of society Schools and all children affected by policies such as: No Child Left Behind Act – teaching more to state testing versus academics and knowledge. Children in poverty cost an estimated $500 billion in lost productivity and spending on health care and criminal justice systems (Fass, Dinan, Aratani, 2009). Children in poverty are more likely to be poor as adults, continuing the cycle increasing chances of chronic poverty ((Fass et al., 2009). The research on children living in poverty reinforces how the environment can and will affect an individual’s situation. Poverty influences a child’s health, education, and future well-being. If a child is not given the same opportunities as other children not living in poverty, the struggle to rise above poverty can be overwhelming. The cycle of poverty will only change when there is an equality of resources. The change starts at the micro level with the individual child and the family receiving services. To break the cycle, the change must be at the macro level with change in policies and laws. Agencies and social workers must give the children living in poverty a voice that can be heard. References American Psychological Association. (2012). Effects of poverty, hunger and homelessness on children and youth. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/print-this.aspx Becton, J. L., Lee, C., Nieman, L. Z. (2008). The effect of lack of insurance, poverty and paediatrician supply on immunization rates among children 19-35 months of age in the United States. Journal of evaluation in clinical practice3, 14(2), 248-253. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2753.2007.00841.x Cuthrell, K., Stapleton, J., Ledford, C. (2010). Examining the culture of poverty: promising practices. Preventing school failures, 54(2), 104-110. Dalton, S. (2007, January). Our vulnerable children: poor and overweight. Southern Medical Journal. pp. 1-2. Fass, S., Dinan, K. A., Aratani, Y. (2009, December). Child poverty and intergenerational mobility. National center for Children in Poverty. Retrieved from http://nccp.org/publications/pub_911.html Hutchinson, E. D., (2013). Theoretical perspectives on human behavior. Essentials of human behavior integrating person, environment, and the life course. (pp. 39 – 42). Thousand Oaks, CA Sage Publications. Compare/Contrast Krystal and Jessica both want to work with immigrants to help integrate them into the schools and society and overcome barriers. My desire to help children in poverty could be viewed as similar as both groups have barriers due to their status. Immigrants and poor people are looked upon as being less of a person. Each group I believe is affected by the conflict perspective. The unequal balance of power and resources prevents immigrants and poor people access to the same opportunities. If there is not a balance or equal opportunity to services and resources, how can immigrants and people living in poverty achieve the successes of those with access? The environment in which immigrants and poor people are exposed to everyday does not meet the basic needs of acceptance and hope. If children are to succeed in the classroom they must be given the tools and support to do so. Things such as food, shelter and language are taken for granted by society when there is not a need. How is a child who cannot understand what a teacher is saying or is being bullied by other children because of their different speech or clothing achieving success in the classroom? How can a child who has not eaten since lunch in school the day before concentrate on what is being taught by the teacher? Society must take responsibility for these  children. Social workers must advocate at all levels: micro and macro – to ensure immigrants and children of poverty are receiving equal access to opportunities available to others. Social workers and society cannot accept poverty as a norm. Social workers and society cannot accept lack of resources and/or funding an excuse to not properly educate children of immigrants.

Carbon Reduction Treaties and the World Trade Organization

Carbon Reduction Treaties and the World Trade Organization Trade and Climate Change: Proposal for Reconciling the WTO with Carbon-Reduction Treaties Executive Summary The relationship between climate change and the rules controlling the international players is an area that has elicited a lot of debate. Some of the trade agreements undermine the ability of governments to implement climate policies in their own countries. The fight for climate change is a battle for the policy makers in trade since if the conditions are not conducive for trade to happen; their profits will dwindle. Developing countries will have to suffer an extra cost on their exports if the playing field is not level with the international partners. All players in the provision of goods and services should price carbon emission costs correctly to ensure market efficiency. The policy and regulatory changes needed should affect both trade and climate change. This should be a global initiative and not just the leading partners. The effort and implement of proper policies by one party will not be sufficient, as their action will be watered down by the activities by the others. This p aper looks at the effects climate change has had on business at the local and international level. It also looks at ways in which the World Trade Organization rules and regulations conflict with International conventions on climate change, especially carbon emission reduction. Finally, I attempt to make proposals on how this problem of climate change could be resolved without necessarily causing an imbalance in the markets. Trade and Climate Change: Proposal for Reconciling the WTO with Carbon-Reduction Treaties Introduction Free trade could improve the welfare of many countries. This is rarely achievable though since countries have varying economic powers. They get into trade agreements with neighbors and have a sort of exchange of resources. These relationships are usually a give and take with the politics playing a major role. The inter-relation between climate change and international trade has gravely impacted developing countries. Much emphasis has not been given to provide a solution to a combined effort to reduce the effects of global warming caused by human intervention. Our actions now have far-reaching consequences and will affect generations to come.   In the quest to meet the needs of our respective countries, we are depleting the natural resources and poisoning the environment. This paper will attempt to highlight the potential areas of conflict between various economic interests and the interventions proposed by the trade partners and advocacy groups such as Wort Trade Organizations (WTO). Background The world stands at a crucial juncture with respect to global economic policy development. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have been formulated through global governance to bring forth a new perception of the issue of climate change to protect the earth’s economy, the human race and the environment (Edouard & Bernstein, 2016). Carbon-Reduction Treaties such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement on Climate Change together with the SDGs are examples of currents ways through which world leaders have come together for the sake of saving the world economy by agreeing to join forces and tackle carbon emissions with one voice. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is a body of International partners who have come together to engage on matters concerning the world’s climate. It started as a call to countries to limit global temperatures and control climate changes and working towards the impact of already existing effects of climate change (Park, 2016). The Paris Climate Agreement is an accord within the (UNFCCC) was adopted in December 2015. This Agreement deals with greenhouse gas emission mitigation, adoption and finance commencing 2020.   The agreement was negotiated by 196 parties and signed by 195 members. The Paris Agreement reached an agreement in 2015 where the signatories concurred to restrict global warming ‘well below 2 °C and to pursue further reduction of these temperatures to 1.5 degrees Celsius (Raes, Liao, Chen & Seinfeld, 2010). Each country is expected to formulate policies and implement them the best way they see fit and finally report to the UNFCCC on their contribution towards mitigation of global warming. They agreed not to set any enforcement mechanisms of this agreement, but they would at the minimum be expected to go beyond earlier set targets. This stance was adopted after it was found impossible to ensure compliance under the Kyoto Protocol (Gupta, 2014). The concerns about this Agreement are that the current pledges by countries are not going to meet the required quota to meet the global target. Countries are not yet effecting policies to ensure carbon dioxide reduction emissions. The lack of an enforcement mechanism means nothing can be done to anyone who fails to implement policies of engage in activities that are geared towards environmental protection. The agreement was just a promise by the heads of state with no legal binding effect. No sanctions such as carbon tax can be imposed on one for failure of compliance (Park, 2016). Private investors are to take up the role of meeting the Sustainable Development Goal No.13 on ensuring action concerning climate change and its impact (Goal 13 .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, 2017). This involves low carbon ventures and clean technology. The government’s role in this instance would be limited, and hopefully, the conditions in the business environments in the countries would be conducive. The existing trade agreements are of two kinds: Regional Trade Agreements (RTA) and Preferential Trade Agreements (PTA). The RTAs are reciprocal agreements between partners. They include customs unions, free trade agreements, etc. PTAs are unilateral preferences that mean the developed countries are given preferential tariffs on their imports from the LCDs and other non-reciprocal preferential systems. The most significant area of conflict between the rules in these trade agreements and climate change is the status of border tax adjustment within WTO’s General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). At the moment there is no carbon pricing to enable meeting of the objectives of climate change under UNFCCC principles (Park, 2016). Strategies to combat climate change suggested by partners are many and varied such as: (1) imposing carbon tax or border tax adjustment. These tax caps are to offset any adverse effects of capping carbon dioxide releases into countries that are not executing the Kyoto protocol. (2) Increased reliance on renewable energies thereby reducing pollution and emission of gases into the atmosphere; and offering inducements for energy efficiency and preservation; (3) lowered subsidies for fossil fuels; and (4) transnational transmissions, so developing countries shun burning coal (Park, 2016). Effects of Climate Change on Business Rapid climate adjustment threatens the global economy not so much for the current generation but for future generations. Under the earlier discussed treaties, countries are expected to meet their targets through national intervention. Their efforts are monitored and recorded in the International Transaction Log by the United Nations (UN) Climate Change Secretariat to ensure compliance with the protocol. The Kyoto Protocol presented 3 market-based instruments to realize the targets by members (Mechanisms under the Kyoto Protocol). These instruments would motivate sustainable growth through skill transfer and investment; remove carbon in an affordable manner and inspire the privately owned businesses and unindustrialized nations to support the decline struggle. These mechanisms included Clean Development Mechanism (CDM); Joint Implementation (JI), and Emissions Trading (ET) (Goal 13 .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform, 2017). A recent study by James Hansen and other co-authors indicated that the glaciers in Greenland and Antarctica could be melting faster than had earlier been predicted. This would mean that within 50 years, the sea levels would rise by 10–20 feet (2015). This means that coastal cities and countries such as New York, Haiti, etc. would suffer tremendously. This is just a simple example of what climate change can do to a country. This is the reason why in 2015, the Conference of Parties (COP21) met in France to discuss International Trade in the face of climate change. The expectation was that these partners would nurture development, create businesses and improvement progress. Developing countries that still rely on the natural habitat for their existence are being affected by global warming, therefore, perpetuating more poverty. This leaves them impoverished since they will not produce any resources to engage in trade.   For example, in Africa, tourism is the main source of income for the countries with tourists visiting from all over the world to see wild animals in their natural habitat. Due to the effects of climate change, there are wildfires and drought that ravage them killing the animals discouraging sightseers. The down at the African Coast of Indian Ocean, the fish stock has gone down due to overfishing and the fact that the sea temperatures have increased, it is no longer possible to support the once attractive marine life (Reiter, 2015). Most of the African nations rely on agriculture for cash crops. This is slowly changing, as there has been a massive loss of biodiversity experienced. Not only will these countries find it difficult to feed their people, they will have nothing to trade with in exchange for the good and services they lack. For instance, the Tanzanian coast which is a central port for trade within the East African community is expected to rise by 70 centimeters by 2070. This would mean the government revenue will be affected and so will service delivery to the people. Reconciling the WTO with Carbon-Reduction Treaties In 2010, parties to the Multilateral Conventions (WTO, UNFCCC) were unable to reach consensus on reduction of emissions of heat-trapping gases at the Copenhagen climate conference and at the WTO Doha Round in 2001 since they involved complex issues. The issue of cross-linking concessions did not make the discussion easier. There are those scholars who believe that climate change is brought about by countries failing to observe the environmental cost of production, therefore, the society bears the brunt of these actions. There exists monopolies appear as a result of the absence of intervention or if they do not provide a conducive business environment. At the international level, however, market failure leads to a dysfunctioning world economy. As a result of the failure of the Doha and Copenhagen meetings, the U.S and the European Union blamed China and India whom they say are the main emitters of CO2 for failing to commit to the reduction of the emissions under UNFCC (Hermwille, 2018). 3 Policy proposals were fronted as follows: BTAFU: BorderTax Adjustment based on Foreign Unrestricted Carbon Content BTADU: Border Tax Adjustment based on Domestic Unrestricted Carbon Content BTADE: Scenario Efficient Border Tax Adjustment A tax on Carbon would guarantee efficacy between producers from countries with high carbon taxes when compared to with no carbon dioxide emission (Hermwille, 2018). Other trade policy options would include the use of domestic and export subsidies to give national companies an upper hand over international companies. Subsidizing could lead to obligations and subsequently protracted proceedings through the WTO disagreement settlement procedures. If the governments then agree on rights and duties, countries with CO2 reduction policies and existing trade measures may be tempted to reaction as a result of imagined unfair price advantage from countries with policies on carbon reduction (Hermwille, 2018). There exist general exceptions provisions within WTO rules and agreement, which would ordinarily be considered inconsistent with mainstream obligations, which allow trade restrictions of trade to protect, e.g., animals, plants or health to safeguard finite natural resources. These processes can be implemented in a general manner avoiding tedious litigation (Hermwille, 2018). The parties could use the Trade-Related Investment Measures Agreement (TRIMS) as a discussed and resuscitated idea. There was a list of export limitations, trade balancing requirements and home-grown/ local content requirement. TRIMS were a handy trade agreements permitting under developed countries to safeguard their industries. It could be used to now protect industries which committed to reduction of CO2 and dubbed Green Trims ++ (Hermwille, 2018). TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) have exceptions which could be used to help the least developed countries to advance. Technology from developed countries that aid in carbon reduction could be acquired through the â€Å"compulsory licensing† clause making it easier for these countries (LDCs). TRIPS could be widened to include TRIPS++ (Hermwille, 2018). The other solution would be by using the Plurilateral agreements to combine three different sectors as follows:   a) energy (goods and services), b) environment (goods and services) and c) trade (Preferential Trade Agreements) and development (Aid-for-Trade, Enhanced Integrated Framework, TRTAs). This would enable the countries to align their trade and development interests to a green objective (Hermwille, 2018). The WTO’s Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures (SCM Agreement) may be applied to combat the excessive fossil fuel subsidies. This Agreement has general restrictions have previously not been effective in limiting fossil fuel subsidies since it has been seen as an expensive endeavor (Hermwille, 2018). Plausible Solutions to Climate Changes at National and International levels To end these problems, there has to be a concerted effort, especially by all actors both in developed and developing countries. Trade alterations, trade inducements or subsidizations that encourage wasteful and unsanctionable trade and industry activities must cease to exist. The predisposition to create new hurdles touching on renewables, comprising biofuels, needs to be addressed at the local and international level. Have strict requirements concerning the burden of trade measures, which tend to work against sustainable development goals. Doing away with fossil fuel subsidies such as tax breaks, loans, cheap land, etc. that encourages big corporations to deplete the non-renewable energy sources as opposed to investing in alternative energy sources.   Carbon emissions have increasingly gotten out of hand with the fossil fuels burning such as gas, oil or coal. Carbon dioxide is released into the air when these fuels are being produced. It should thereafter be re-absorbed by plants and animals, but it is too much in the atmosphere making the global temperatures rise. This is global warming. These players need to be incentivized to reduce carbon emissions. Trade and investments are important in making a difference in markets and spreading them. If the players could be allowed to engage in an open trading system, with agreed rules, the producers of fossil energy would increase on efficacy and reduce wastage. As shown in the below, low carbon investment may possibly be attained at domestic echelons through state intervention, industry players, civil societies, private sector etc. (International governance options to strengthen WTO and UNFCCC1, 2011) Source: (Saner, 2011) At the international level, International production organizations should go green. This should be felt at all levels of production and putting in place a verifiable process to ensure strict compliance of the final outcome or process. Multilateral agreements and covenants such as Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) have attempted to achieve this but with little success. Financial markets both local and international could be rewarded for investing in climate adaptation and mitigation. They could be compelled to have an environmental and social governance performance report. This will push them to perform in a more responsible way. Tariffs on environmental technologies should be abolished to encourage innovation of environmentally friendly technologies accessible to many. Wind turbines, solar panels are some of the examples that come to mind that would help developing countries. The Montreal protocol is viewed as one of the most successful multilateral environmental agreements ever. It has received funding from UNDP, UNEP, and the World Bank and spent this money through environmental conservation programs. The Clean Technology Fund is guided by UNFCC principles and finances clean technology transfers, which was to be used for financing technology transfers. These are all good actions by the World Bank, but this has not stopped them from also funding carbon-demanding projects in line with their normal procedures. These funds are in the form of loans so they will eventually have to be paid off at a steep cost especially to the developing countries. This cannot, therefore, be said to be a self-actualization of the Kyoto commitments. Conclusion To reconcile trade rules and climate policies would require the effort of all global partners including the Least Developed Countries. Governments must take it upon themselves to implement the proposals stated herein and other dictates in the WTO agreements. Bearing in mind that WTO is no longer an efficient negotiating partner, countries should engage in regional, bilateral or Plurilateral agreements that support their policies on climate change but at the same time do not stifle international change. A balance can be found where positive climate provisions could find their way in trade policies and vice versa. References Edouard, L., & Bernstein, S. (2016). Challenges for Measuring Progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals.  African Journal Of Reproductive Health,  20(3), 45-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.29063/ajrh2016/v20i3.9 Goal 13 .:. Sustainable Development Knowledge Platform. (2017).  Sustainabledevelopment.un.org. Retrieved 22 April 2018, from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg13 Gupta, A. (2014). Clean development mechanism of Kyoto Protocol.  International Journal Of Climate Change Strategies And Management,  6(2), 116-130. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/ijccsm-09-2012-0051 Hermwille, L. (2018). Making initiatives resonate: how can non-state initiatives advance national contributions under the UNFCCC?.  International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law And Economics. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10784-018-9398-9 Park, D. (2016).  Legal issues on climate change and international trade law. Springer. Raes, F., Liao, H., Chen, W., & Seinfeld, J. (2010). Atmospheric chemistry-climate feedbacks.  Journal Of Geophysical Research,  115(D12). http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009jd013300 Reiter, J. (2015).  What does climate change mean for the future of trade?.  World Economic Forum. Retrieved 22 April 2018, from https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2015/12/what-does-climate-change-mean-for-the-future-of-trade/ Saner, R. (2011).  International governance options to strengthen WTO and UNFCCC. Retrieved from http://www.diplomacydialogue.org/images/files/20110611-International%20governance%20options%20to%20strengthen%20WTO%20and%20UNFCCC.pdf

The Impact of Increased Literacy on Ballads and Chapbooks in Seventeent

The Impact of Increased Literacy on Ballads and Chapbooks in Seventeenth-Century England In seventeenth-century England, the rise of popular education and literacy coinciding with the mechanical technology of printing, led to the decline in the creation of ballads and in the importance of chapbooks. After England's Restoration period, inexpensive print was available in large quantities due to new technological innovations in the printing field. Almanacs became important for households on all social levels to own and approximately four hundred thousand were printed in the 1660s annually. Bibles were also being printed in great amounts, though less than almanacs due to the fact that they did not become out-dated. Early in the seventeenth-century England underwent "a form of phenomenon a little like that phenomenon of the Great Rebuilding and is very likely related to it" (9). This upsurgance of spending power enabled the yeomanry of the countryside to send their sons to school. Free from the labor force, these boys were taught to read and write. Fathers who were not as wealthy as the yeomen, still could send their sons to school until they were of working age, about six or seven. These lower class boys were taught to read, but writing was taught at a later age. This increase in the amount of the population that could read and write was extremely significant, transforming England from the fourteenth-century to the sixteenth century from a late medieval peasant society, to a society in which reading and writing were used by more people, and on all social scales, for education and entertainment. Approximately thirty percent of men in the latter half of the seventeenth-century were literate. Sixt y-five percent of the yeomen w... ...rich widow, waiting at the same place to go through the ceremony with him" (56). Regional chapbooks were written, with the characters talking in local dialects and usually mocking another region of England or a person visiting from a foreign country. The rise in literacy and the decrease of printing costs that simultaneously occurred in the seventeenth century, had both negative and positive effects on the socio-economic structure of England. The oral tradition of ballads, and the social community centered around it, were lost. Literacy brought self-education through books and entertainment from chapbooks to hundreds of yeomen, farm labors, tradesmen, and some lower class poor. Work Cited Spufford, Margaret. Small Books and Pleasant Histories: Popular Fiction and its Readership in Seventeenth-Century England. Athens: The University of Georgia Press, 1981.

Slave Trading Essay -- Slavery

â€Å"African slavery is the corner-stone of the industrial, social, and political fabric of the South; and whatever wars against it, wars against her very existence. Strike down the institution of African slavery and you reduce the South to depopulation and barbarism.† –Lawerence Keitt, South Carolina Congressman, 1860 Slave trading dates back to ancient times, but it did not become popular until the fifteenth century when the Portugese began engaging in slave trading for profit. The colonization of the Americas brought about a new wave of slave importation in the late seventeenth century. A large percentage of the indentured servants and Native Americans were dying from diseases bought to the land by Europeans, and the American colonists were forced to look elsewhere for laborers. They discovered that African Americans were virtually immune to tropical diseases, cheap to import, and were experienced agrarians, so they championed slavery under the premise that African Americans were inferior to their own race. Because slaves were cheap, it was much easier for a planter to work a slave to his death and replace him with another than to treat him well. By the end of the seventeenth century, African American were being imported to the Americas and sold to planters by the thousands. Slavery, indeed, bec ame the â€Å"cornerstone† of America’s economic success. Without the grueling labor of the slaves, the booming sugar, rice, cotton, and tobacco industries would have ceased to exist in the New World. As the Americas evolved from a simple farming society into an agricultural stronghold, settlers became more and more dependent on slavery. By the mid-eighteenth century, slaves vastly outnumbered colonists. During the seventeenth, eight... ...audah Equiano or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself, volume 1, 70-88. Thomas Clarkson, The History of the Rise, Progress, and Accomplishments of the African Slave Trade by the British Parliament. Ibid. Ibid. Equiano, 70-88. Ibid. Solomon Northup, Twelve Years A Slave, 78-82. Equanio, 70-88. Ibid. â€Å"Management of Slaves, &c,† The Farmer’s Register: A Monthly Publication Devoted to the Improvement of the Practice and Support of the Interests of Agriculture 5, 10 May 1837, 32-33. Ibid. Samuel G. Howe, in John W. Blassingame, Slave Testimony, American Freedmen’s Inquiry Commission Interviews, 386. Ibid. Howe, 385. Ibid. Howe, 386. Joint Select Committee Chairman, Testimony Taken by the Joint Select Committee to Inquire Into the Condition of Affairs in the Late Insurrectionary States, volume 1, 1862, 411-412. Ibid. Ibid.

Analysis of Priceline

Priceline Inc. is an online travel booking site that helps customers worldwide purchase airfare, hotels, rental cars, and much more. The three categories I chose to analyze are business model and strategies, business finances, and expansion of the company through acquisitions. For Priceline to have success, I believe the business model and how the company builds its model is extremely important. Next, it is crucial that we look at the finances of the company to ensure it is profitable. The finances of the company are tied to the various acquisitions Priceline has acquired in the past few years. By looking at the companies Priceline has acquired, I strongly recommend investing in Priceline based off of the record earnings posted by the company. Not only is Priceline profitable, the corporation also has an unique business strategy to make money. When assigned this paper, I began to use databases and Factiva to search for information about Priceline. I used the information found from da tabases and used them as research to support my report. I then researched Priceline’s marketing techniques as well as stock prices in order to elaborate on the company’s finances. Finally, I learned about the companies Priceline has acquired over the years to expand its market presence. To figure out the formatting and structure of this paper, I used other people’s reports as guidance.IntroductionPriceline’s business model includes value proposition of connecting vendors and customers. It consists of a revenue model where there are transaction fees and spread earned by the company between vendor and customer price. Launched in 1998, Priceline Inc. does not directly supply travel services, but rather they bring buyers and sellers together to complete a transaction. Priceline saves consumers money by trading travel flexibility of brands and product features for sellers’ lower prices. Business Model and StrategiesEver since the development of the inte rnet, dot-com companies have been booming left and right. One of those companies founded during the dot-com boom was Priceline Inc., an online travel booking site that revolutionized the way consumers purchased air tickets, hotel rooms, rental cars, and much more. Priceline Inc. developed and innovated a new system of â€Å"Name your own  price† for customers to finalize their travels. They were able to turn excess inventory otherwise not sold by the airlines to consumers while at the same time price discriminate in order to maximize profits. In the airline industry, it is estimated that only 65% of the seats on a plane are occupied on a daily basis.Airlines definitely were looking a way to vend the rest of the inventory. However, they could not advertise these excess seats with special discount because in doing so, it would destroy its retail fare structure. Priceline was the solution to this as they are able to help shield airlines branding in two different ways. First, w hen consumers try to name your own price on Priceline, they must choose travels between two cities. In this case, the airlines’ branding and product configurations are protected as customers have no idea which airline they will be selecting. Only after a bid is accepted will they learn their exact flight information and itinerary. Secondly, Priceline protects those who are considered free riders. These are people who would receive the benefit of a discount but they are already willing to pay for an air ticket at a higher price (Eisenmann 47-48). Name Your Price GuaranteeFigure 1.1Source: (Priceline.com) Revenue Generation: Priceline is able to effectively generate revenue one of two ways. First, it calculates a spread between the lowest prices offered by the Airline partner and the highest prices a customer is willing to pay. In this scenario, neither party the airline partner nor the customer have the option of knowing the asking price or the bid price. A customer has no ide a what unpublished rate the airline is offering. Only Priceline would have this secret information. On the other hand, the airline does not get to see how much the consumers bid on the air ticket. For example, if a customer bids $300 on a ticket from LAX to JFK and the lowest unpublished rate for any given airline is $200, then the spread would be $100, which Priceline retains as its earnings. As seen from this model, profiting from the spread is highly successful given the economies of scale from customers (Eisenmann 47-48). Adaptive Marketing and Cross Subsidy:Furthermore, Priceline also offers consumers to bump up their bids by participating in â€Å"adaptive marketing† and â€Å"cross-subsidy† promotional programs. For instance, Priceline could add $50 to an existing $100 bid to make it more likely that a ticket will be sold if one signs up for a credit card. If that is the case, the credit card company may pay Priceline $75 for every referral that signs up for the card. In this case, Priceline would simply pocket the difference. If the asking price for the ticket was already under $100, then Priceline would keep all of the money coming from credit card sponsorship (Eisenmann 48).Business Finances Early Stages of Priceline: At the beginning of year 2000, Priceline had a market share of 3% of all airline tickets sold in the U.S. Attracting over 3.8 million unique visitors, Priceline sold tickets for all eight domestic airlines as well as 20 international carriers. One year after its establishment in 1998, Priceline’s revenue was $482 Million in 1999 and $1 Billion in 2000 (Eisenmann 48).However, the dot-com bubble would halt Priceline’s success only temporarily. 1999 was a tough year for Priceline as it stated a $1.1 Billion loss on its financial statement. Stock prices plunged from $974 to $7 a share. According to Walker, â€Å"there was a credibility issue† within the organization and investors did not completely trust t he dot-com industry. Priceline’s financials would improve slowly. In 2002, Priceline reported a net loss of $19 Million. When CEO Jeff Boyd took over the company in 2002, Priceline stocks had suffered one of the worst drops in its brief history. But soon enough, Priceline was able to make a turnaround when it introduced William Shatner as the negotiator character out of the blue to help consumers save money. Instantaneously, people remembered the advertisements put up by Priceline and associated with Shatner, a former Star-Trek star’s self-parody. William ShatnerFigure 1.2Source: (Thepenaltyflagblog.com) From Loss to Profit: Priceline started making a profit in 2003, but it wasn’t until 2004 and 2005 when Boyd bought two European hotel reservation sites—the U.K.'s Active Hotels and Amsterdam-based Booking.com that Priceline hit a turning point. â€Å"Priceline's earnings growth and stock market success since then have been attributable largely to those t wo acquisitions—Booking.com in particular. It would be tough to argue that there's been a better acquisition in Internet history,† says Thomas White, an analyst at Macquarie Securities. â€Å"It's why the stock has been such a home run,† says White.Thomas White and Barclays' DiClemente would agree that investors lack the knowledge that most of the revenue come from overseas. Since Europeans have many more vacation days as Americans, it is not surprising that more revenue is inflowing from Europe. Jeff Boyd, the CEO of Priceline, was smart about targeting such a market in Europe. â€Å"Moreover, the growth of discount airlines in Europe such as EasyJet and Ryanair have increased the popularity of â€Å"city breaks†Ã¢â‚¬â€the European equivalent of a weekend getaway,† states Birger. Earnings Report in 2012:In 2012, Priceline continued to post better than expected earnings reports. In the third quarter of 2012, Priceline reported third quarter revenue s of $1.71 Billion, up 17.4% from a year ago in 2011. Also, Priceline beat the estimate of $1.65 Billion projected revenue determined previously by analysts. Non-GAAP profits stood at $12.40 a share, ahead of the estimate of $11.81 a share. Gross bookings came in at $7.8 billion, elevated 25.2% from a year ago. For quarter four in 2012, Eric Savitz of Forbes magazine states â€Å"Priceline projected revenues to be up 21-28% or 22%-29% in local currency; revenues are expected to improve 15%-22%, with non-GAAP profits of $6.12 to $6.57 a share. Consensus has been for $6.34 a share.†Continuous Growth: In the mean time, CEO Jeff Boyd continues to have high hopes for Priceline. â€Å"Globally our hotel business grew room nights by 36% over the same period last year, compared to 39% growth in the second quarter,† he said. â€Å"Our rental car business grew rental car days by 35% over last year, an acceleration from 29% in the second quarter, led by improving results at Pric eline.com and continued strong growth from Rentalcars.com. While we remain concerned about economic weakness across Europe, Asia and the U.S., the [company] intends to focus on solidifying its position as the world's largest and most profitable online hotel reservation service by continuing to add hotels and other accommodations and better servicing our customers through constant innovation in our mobile and desktop sites.†As promised by Boyd, Priceline continued to show tremendous growth. On November 1st, 2012, Priceline stock was up $12.22 in regular session trading and jumped another $52 a share in after-hours trading to close at $638.95 (Savitz). Since then, Priceline sustains its momentum by reporting record earnings in the preceding quarters. Today, stock price for Priceline is even higher than few years ago. It currently trades at over $1,000 a share and constantly out competes against their rivals Expedia and Orbitz (Birger).10 Year Graph of Priceline (PCLN) Figure 1.3 Source: (Yahoo Finance) Acquisitions and Expansions Booking.com: Priceline is on track to make a very good move because it is believed that the online travel reservation market still has room for expansion in Europe. Priceline typically takes 15% of every transaction done on Booking.com; in return, the hotels have a much better chance to market and advertise to potential customers. After Priceline’s acquisition of Booking.com in July 2005 for $135 Million, its profits skyrocketed from $10 million in 2003 to $1.1 billion in 2011. No other acquisition has proven to be that successful in the 2000’s (O'Neill). Agoda and TraveljigSaw:In addition, Priceline is increasing its brand in Asia via its Agoda brand and it is growing its rental cars division as well, aided by a 2010 acquisition of global car-rental site TravelJigsaw. Ever since these acquisitions of smaller travel companies, Priceline is able to expand its market cap while its stock prices surged over 500% in the fo llowing five years (Birger). Kayak:In 2012, Priceline Inc. continues its acquisition practice with the purchase of Kayak for $1.8 Billion. Shareholders of Kayak received $40 per share. Kayak is successful in that it raised $91 Million in the July 2012 IPO through selling of 3.5 Million shares at $26 apiece. It has processed 302 million queries across its web. Kayak and Priceline are â€Å"two of the largest online-travel companies and it makes sense that these two companies would want to work together, of course, because they do have different strengths and different objectives,† said Dan Marcec, an analyst at Emarketer. With the acquisition of Kayak, Jeff Boyd states that â€Å"Priceline’s intention is for Kayak to be operated independently under the leadership of existing management, as with our other hands, with a primary focus on building value for its customers and advertising partners† (Levy).Conclusion Priceline Inc. operates as one of the biggest travel booking sites in the world. Its global presence in Europe and Asia as well in the Americas cannot be ignored. Priceline Inc. should be a company that is to be heavily invested in because of its revenue and profit posted by the corporation. Its record breaking earnings in the billions should easily attract the eyes of a savvy investor. Priceline will continue to post earnings through the way it does business by matching consumers with vendors and earning the difference in prices. With its continuous acquisitions of smaller booking sites, Priceline is set on par to be the dominant and primary go to website when it comes to travel bookings. Without a doubt, its stock prices will continue to soar as it expands its presence in Asia.

Comparing and contrasting three poems that portray the yearning to belong Essay

We all long to be a part of something and to feel accepted, irrespective of age, culture and society. Similarly, Stephen Spender’s poem, â€Å"My Parents kept Me from Children who were Rough†, Moniza Alvi’s â€Å"An Unknown Girl† and Phyllis McCormack’s â€Å"Crabbit Old Woman† talk about how each of the poets long to be a part of a certain society or culture, and this longing outlines the underlying theme across all three poems. My Parents kept Me from Children who were Rough is about childhood bullying and regret. The narrator experiences bullying at a young age and I sense a feeling of regret as the poet wished he could be a part of the group of rough boys. I get the impression that the narrator, now at his adult stage, feels that he did not make the most of his childhood, and this was perhaps due to class differentials. Whereas, Moniza Alvi’s poem reveals how the narrator had left her hometown at a young stage and when she returns, she yearns to be a part of it. I believe she finds it difficult to reconcile her roots with her foreign lifestyle and falls under the dilemma where she is forced to choose one life, despite her strong desire for both. We get a contrasting idea in Crabbit Old Woman, as it is a plea to break free from the stereotypical image of old people. The old woman feels that she is being judged unfairly because her body has crumbled. She expresses how her soul remains intact, and would like the nurses to realize that her â€Å"battered heart swells† with undiscovered vivacity. All the three poems have an underlying theme of belonging. My parents†¦ is about how the narrator â€Å"longed† to fit in with the group of bullies. The world being so brutal, made growing up hard for the narrator. At a young age, the narrator probably needed to feel wanted and important and hence, wanted to be part of a group. There are many other significant themes present, such as a theme of childhood bullying, as the narrator fears the boys who had â€Å"muscles like irons†. A theme of regret, coupled with loneliness is distinguished, as the poet â€Å"longed to forgive† the bullies, but never had the chance. The constant use of â€Å"I† and â€Å"Me† tells the readers how the poet was lonesome. Therefore, I get the impression that the poem is written based on a bitter childhood memory. I feel sorry for the poet as he was made fun of for his â€Å"lisp† and the bullies’ â€Å"salt-coarse pointing†, which seems to have a ffected the poet’s life greatly, even throughout his adult phase. Similarly, in An unknown girl, the poet wants to belong to her native community, which she once left behind. There is a theme of admiration, as her fascination for the â€Å"evening bazaar studded with neon† is clearly depicted. In addition to that, a theme of self-identity is found, as the poet is desperately trying to find herself through her roots. She is â€Å"unknown† to herself. Whereas, the narrator in Crabbit Old Woman wants to belong in a world and society untouched by the evils of stereotype. She would like to feel accepted and gain the same respect as everybody else. She hopes the â€Å"nurses† would include her in their world, and would look beyond her physical inabilities, in order to admire and recognise the beautiful life she has lived and experienced. Alongside that central theme, a great deal of regret is conveyed, as the narrator immensely resents the way she is stereotyped, and hopes to prove that she is still young at heart. There is also a nostalgic sensation in the poem, as the narrator indulges in reminisces about her past experiences and life stages. I believe that the titles of each poem represent the reason for the narrators’ inability to belong. â€Å"My Parents kept Me from Children who were Rough† suggests how the poet blames his parents for not being able to bask in the pleasures the bullies experienced, as they were very protective of him. I get the impression that he envied the other children’s freedom, in contrast to his restricted life enforced upon him. On the other hand, the title â€Å"An Unknown Girl† has a double meaning as it could refer to the actual girl hennaing the poet’s hand or it may refer to the poet itself. The poet finds this culture overwhelming yet admires it, and she strongly craves to be a part of it. Moreover, the title â€Å"Crabbit Old Woman† itself illustrates the way the old woman is perceived by the nurses. This stereotypical image is what prevents the nurses from exploring the real â€Å"old woman† and prevents her from belonging into their worl d. Structure aids a reader to visualise a poem and the free verse structure in An Unknown Girl expresses the narrator’s exploration of thought and conveys her dream-like admiration. The lack of pauses in the poem is successful, as these would break the connection between the narrator and the bazaar. I felt the layout of the poem was particularly striking, and this furthermore made me realize that it could symbolize the pretty henna, which is described as â€Å"icing† to us, enhancing its graceful manner. Similarly, the use of enjambment in Crabbit Old Woman depicts to the reader the constant running of thoughts and memories of the various stages of life of the old woman. This creates a fast pace coupled with a constant rhyme and free flowing rhythm, which contrasts with the impression the nurses have of old people being slow. I believe the poet chose to use a fast pace and rhyme, to further emphasis that point. Moreover, I feel the use of three structured stanzas with four lines each in My parents†¦ made me realize how the narrator was always forced to follow his parents’ rules and hence, control himself from many things. As a child, one is helpless in front of his or her parents’ decisions and therefore, I feel as if the author felt caged. I sometimes feel obligated to my parents’ decisions and this often aggravates me, hence I can understand the underlying tone of anger and blame placed upon the parents in this poem. The use of effective language by the poets helps suggest the ideas of the poems. The constant use of similes in My Parents†¦ show the child’s admiration and interest for the bullies; as â€Å"muscles like iron† suggests strength and power, which are qualities that generally excite young boys. â€Å"Torn Clothes† reveal class differentiation and this helped justify the reason why the parents did not want the narrator to be a part of the bullies. On the contrary, Moniza Alvi uses striking imagery in her poem, as she paints a wonderful metaphoric image in our minds depicting her state of longing to be a part of this culture. The way the narrator will â€Å"lean across a country [India] with my hands outstretched longing for the unknown girl in the neon bazaar† is a very powerful image. I can almost imagine an anxious woman holding out her arms, in hope to receive her roots; it gives me the idea that the narrator is practically begging for this connection with her hometown. â€Å"Colours leave the street float up in balloons† is another influential metaphoric image. This symbolizes how the poet is trying to reach out for something [her roots], but it is not within her grasp. Moreover, the constant repetition of â€Å"an unknown girl is hennaing my hand† gives me the impression that the poet needs to constantly remind herself that she connects with this place; showing her desperation to remain connected to her roots. I chose these poems as I felt I could relate to them very well. I can understand Alvi’s situation, as I myself am away from my country of origin and often I find myself indulging in a more foreign culture, yet many a times I get nostalgic about the place I come from, despite feeling detached and distant from it. In addition, I think I could share my thoughts and feelings very well with My parents†¦ as it is about a young adult, just like me. Fitting in and being part of a group of children is very vital and therefore, I solemnly sympathize with the narrator. Lastly, I think Crabbit Old Woman deals with a great problem of stereotypical images, which are present in all works of life. It was inspiring to see the old woman standing up against these stereotypical images created by society. The poem made me to realize that I need to offer more respect and admiration for the older generation. All the three poems are written in a unique style and each one conveys very deep issues, in accordance with the universal theme of belonging. All the poets were very much successful in conveying their ideas and they were able to create a lasting impact upon the readers.

The Love in Quartier Enfants Rouges

Christina Bennett ENGL 101-043 Professor Rezendes November 7, 2012 The Love in â€Å"Quartier Enfants Rouges† As many people may know, love is a very complicated thing to understand. The film, Paris, Je T’Aime tries to show the audience many different perspectives of love in a series of short films. One of the short films in this collection is called â€Å"Quartier des Enfants Rouges†. In this short film, love is presented in a very different type of way because neither actor says they are â€Å"in love† with one another, they just express it without the other one knowing.The clip â€Å"Quartier des Enfants Rouges†, directed by Olivier Assayas, presents a story line where love seems to not be the main focus in the clip, but drugs are. Actor Lionel Dray who plays â€Å"Ken†, portrays a character as a drug dealer in Paris who goes to a house party to look for one of his regular customers, Liz (Joana Preiss). Joana Preiss takes the role of a cha racter who is in the town of Paris for an acting role in a movie. When Ken stops by the house to give her the drugs, they go to an ATM because she had no cash. As she was at the ATM, Ken was behind her and trying to touch her, showing the viewers that he cares about her.After she got the cash, they went to the bar for a couple beers and she gave him her number, and told him he could stop by the casting set where she was filming the movie. As they were leaving the bar, he handed her the drugs and she gave him the money. When she was at her trailer later that night waiting to film for the movie, she called Ken and told him to come to her trailer and bring her drugs for her friend, when they were really for her. When her trailer door knocked, it was not Ken; it was one of his friends, Jeff (Nicholas Maury) and Ken had sent him out to give her the drugs.Liz seemed really upset because she wanted Ken to come and not Jeff. After reviewing this film, it is easy to realize that Liz and Ken have a very strange relationship. In the beginning of the clip, they start off as barely knowing each other, and only knowing each other because of drugs, to falling in love and not telling one another. Olivier Assayas is trying to inform the audience by showing that communication is a huge factor when it comes to love. Without communication, a relationship goes nowhere, no matter how much love is involved.The actors present this well, because both Liz and Ken had feelings for each other, yet they both did not know so they were both left confused, and got nothing more out of the relationship. If Ken or Liz just could have said something, their relationship would go even further, and it is always good to know if someone has feelings or not. That is why communication is key in having a supporting and loving relationship. As a viewer of this film, the expectations someone may have are manipulated very quickly. Assayas makes his viewers think that the whole short film is about drugs and drug dealing, when the real story behind the drugs is love.This is a very good way to get an audience hooked into watching the film, because it draws attention to the audience, and makes them think what the real point behind this film is. As I was watching the film, I got drawn it very quickly because of the whole drug theme, since it was different from all the other films in this movie. When I watched it the first time, I did not fully understand what the short film was about, because the theme of love was so subtle, I could barely recognize why it was even apart of this movie.Since the ending left me with confusion, it just made me want to watch it again even more. Assayas does a wonderful job in getting his viewer’s attention because the plot and theme were different, and was unlike all the other love films that were easy to understand. This in my opinion, was overall the most well-thought out film, and had the best theme of love that was depicted. The film Paris Je Tâ₠¬â„¢Aime, shows the audience what love is all about. â€Å"Quartier des Enfants Rouges† shows that drugs are not the most important thing in keeping a relationship going, but communication is.Communication is a skill that everyone needs and it makes relationships grow, and even make them stronger. Without communication, it will ultimately leave someone confused and hopeless, as shown by Liz’s reaction at the end of this short film. It is always safe to keep in mind that love is not easy to find, but when it does happen, express it. Works Cited Assayas, Olivier, dir. â€Å"Quartier des Enfants Rouges† Paris Je T’Aime, 2006. Perf. Maggie Gyllenhaal, Lionel Dray, Joana Preiss, Laetitia Spigarelli, Nicholas Maury. First Look, 2007. DVD.

Does Cognitive Dissonance Explain Why Behavior Can Change Attitudes

Does Cognitive Dissonance Explain Why Behavior Can Change Attitudes The proponents of the cognitive dissonance theory, Leon Festinger and James Carlsmith, argue that people are bound to change their attitudes if they realize that their actions do not reflect their true attitudes. This contradiction between actions and attitudes is referred to as cognitive dissonance (psychological tension), which can be reversed by people changing their behaviors in order to reflect the prevailing circumstances.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Does Cognitive Dissonance Explain Why Behavior Can Change Attitudes? specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More On the other hand, the opponent of the cognitive dissonance theory, Daryl Bem, proposes a different theory (the theory of self-perception) in which he posits that if people are not sure about their present attitudes, they tend to assess their behaviors in order to establish their attitudes. Accordingly, Bem argues that psychological tension is not the basis of the contradictions between actions and attitudes as proposed by the cognitive dissonance theorists. To support their claim, Festinger and Carlsmith propose an experiment in which they observe opinion/behavioral changes that follow from forced compliance. The experiment involved participants performing seemingly boring tasks after which they are paid to lie to other participants that the tasks were enjoyable. The participants were paid different amounts, that is, some were given $1 while others received $20. The findings of the study show that participants who were paid $1 experienced cognitive dissonance in that their actions contradicted their true attitudes about the experimental tasks. Conversely, the $20 group showed no significant differences with the control group. These findings corroborate the cognitive dissonance theory in that when the participants were asked to do what is contrary to their true opinions; they changed the opinions to correspond to their actions. However, t he researchers observed that the larger the pressure to elicit the contradicting action, the weaker the tendency for behavioral changes. Contrary to Festinger-Carlsmith’s findings, Bem tried to replicate the experiment in order to show that the results did not necessarily support the cognitive dissonance theory. In his experiment, 75 college students were selected into the $1, $20, and control groups. Bem’s experiment was aimed at determining the accuracy involved in people judging others.Advertising Looking for essay on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More All participants listened to recordings of one participant (Bob) who had participated in the experimental tasks, which had been described in detail to them earlier. Afterwards, the participants were allowed to listen to the conversation between the same participant (Bob) who had been paid to lie and another participant waiting in line whereby the former lied about how he had enjoyed the tasks. All the participants were then asked to evaluate the answers given by Bob to the same questions, which had been used in Festinger-Carlsmith’s experiment, and rate them in a scale of -5 (tasks were boring) to +5 (tasks were enjoyable) or 0 (tasks were neutral). The results show that the $1 group differed significantly from the control conditions in that they were on extreme ends of the scale. Relative to the self-perception theory, participants who accepted $1 to lie may have concluded that the experimental tasks must have been enjoyable because they had told someone the same considering that they had been paid $1 to lie. As a result, Bem concluded that people’s attitudes follow from their actions as opposed to behavioral changes that result from psychological tension. Furthermore, additional studies tend to point to the fact that the self-perception theory can effectively account for Bem’s experimental findings .

Dumpster Diving Essay Example

Dumpster Diving Essay Example Dumpster Diving Essay Dumpster Diving Essay My Daily Dives in the Dumpster Lars Eighner is a very resourceful and intelligent man who recounts his 5-year experience as a homeless man drifting between Austin and Hollywood in My Daily Dives in the Dumpster. He decides the American consumer life is more comfortable than the life of a scavenger. Although, if I could I would naturally prefer to live the comfortable consumer life, perhaps and only perhaps as a slightly less wasteful consumer owing to what I have learned as a scavenger. , the author states. The American economic system is disproportionate and flawed, but Eighner does not complain about his homeless life. He enjoyed the pursuit as a scavenger and viewed it as a form of self-reliance that is lost in modern day America. Eighner speaks about how he reuses what others refuse when dumpster diving. I like the frankness of the word scavenging. I live from the refuse of others. When it comes to obtaining items of value and immediate utility Eighner compares himself to the very wealthy. I find that my desire to grab for the gaudy bauble has been largely sated, I think this is an attitude I share with the very wealthy we both know there is plenty more where that came from. Between us are the rat-race millions who have confounded their selves with the objects they grasp and who nightly scavenge the cable channels looking for they know not what. This paragraph was exceptional at pointing out Eighners view on America. He speaks of the rich, the poor, and rat-race of millions who know not what they desire but continue to grasp for items of no use or meaning to them. The author believes we should take what we can use and let the rest go. We must restrict ourselves to items of immediate utility or trade value. He also supposes that ideas are longer-lived than material objects. I agree with the author, Lars Eighner. The American economic system is disproportionate and flawed even Dumpster diving in affluent neighborhoods reaps more remains. Eighner exemplifies this when he hung around dumpsters near affluent colleges. However, he did not paint a negative picture of his life. He said he is not heartbroken and dumpster diving is pleasant outdoor work, which rewards intelligence, unlike his previous occupation. In fact, the once homeless Lars Eighner reflects on Americans and their way of life, he concludes, I am sorry for them. Therefore, it is the Americans in the rat-race who search for endless materials, Eighner is sorry for.

Definition and Examples of Sound Change in English

Definition and Examples of Sound Change in English In historical linguistics  and phonology, sound change has been traditionally defined as any appearance of a new phenomenon in the phonetic/phonological structure of a language (Roger Lass in Phonology:  An Introduction to Basic Concepts, 1984). More simply, sound change might be described as any particular  change in the sound system of a language over a period of time. The drama of linguistic change, said  English lexicographer and philologist  Henry C. Wyld, is enacted not in manuscripts or in inscriptions, but in the mouths and minds of men (A Short History of English, 1927).   There are many types of sound change, including the following: Aphesis and ApocopeAssimilation  Dissimilation and HaplologyLexical DiffusionMetanalysisMetathesisPrinciple of Least EffortProthesisSyncope See Examples and Observations below. Also, see: The Great Vowel ShiftGrimms LawIsoglossLanguage ChangeMutationPhonologyPronunciationWord Boundaries Examples and Observations An understanding of sound change is truly important for historical linguistics in general, and this needs to be stressed- it plays an extremely important role in the comparative method and hence also in linguistic reconstruction, in internal reconstruction, in detecting loanwords, and in determining whether languages are related to one another.(Lyle Campbell, Historical Linguistics: An Introduction, 2nd ed. MIT Press, 2004)Pronunciation of SchwaThere is a growing body of evidence that frequently used words quite often get affected early- an observation first made in the 19th century. . . .Consider the words adultery, century, cursory, delivery, desultory, elementary, every, factory, nursery, slavery. If possible, write them down on a piece of paper and ask several friends to read them out loud. Better still, get people to read sentences which include the words. For example: A cursory glance at the newspaper suggests that adultery is on the increase in this century. If you think slave ry has been abolished, go and look at the factory at the end of our road. Every mother will tell you that nursery schools are a mixed blessing. Make a careful note of how the crucial words are pronounced, and see if your results agree with those of a linguist who carried out an investigation of this type.The investigator noted that, according to the dictionary, all words which are spelt with -ary, -ery, -ory or -ury are pronounced somewhat as if they rhymed with furry. The vowel preceding r is a so-called schwa, a short indeterminate sound written phonetically as [É™], and sometimes represented orthographically as er (British English) or uh (American English). In practice the schwa was not always pronounced. It was usually omitted in common words such as ev(e)ry, fact(o)ry, nurs(e)ry, which were pronounced as if they were spelt evry, factry, nursry with two syllables only. In slightly less common words, such as delivery, there was fluctuation. Some people inserted a schwa, others omitted it. A schwa was retained in the least common words, such as desultory, cursory.(Jean Aitchison, Language Change: Progress or Decay? 3rd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2001) Theories of Sound ChangeVarious theories of sound change, some of them proposed a century ago or earlier were current in the [19]70s. There was a longstanding traditional view about sound change being due to speakers modifying their pronunciation either to make it easier- to expend less effort- or to make speech clearer for the sake of the listener. Another one was espoused by Halle (1962) that language change, including sound change, served to improve grammar by making it more cognitively simple to compute. Postal (1968) suggested it was due to speakers desire for novelty, i.e., sounds change for the same reason that hemlines and haircuts change. Lightner (1970) claimed it was to avoid homophonydespite the abundant counter-examples that show homophony as the result of sound change. These are all teleological accounts, that is to say, they assume that the changes are purposeful, i.e., that they [are] motivated by a goal of some sort . . ..(John Ohala, The Listener As a Source of Soun d Change: An Update. The Initiation of Sound Change: Perception, Production, and Social Factors, ed. by Maria-Josep Solà © and Daniel Recasens. John Benjamins, 2012) The Neogrammarian Regularity HypothesisIn the 1870s a group of linguists now generally referred to as the Neogrammarians created a lot of attention, controversy, and excitement with the claim that unlike all other linguistic change, sound change is regular and operates without exceptions.This Neogrammarian or regularity hypothesis led to a great deal of valuable and interesting research. However, as can be expected, such a strong claim did not remain without a good deal of often quite vociferous opposition. . . .[I]t is important to note that the neogrammarian regularity hypothesis has proved to be enormously fruitful, no matter how accurate it may be in fact. For it forces the linguist to look for explanations of apparent irregularity, either by establishing a non-phonetic source or through a better formulation of a given sound change. Either way we learn more about the history of a given language and about the nature of linguistic change than if we subscribe to a view that does not expect regularity in sound change.(Hans Henrich Hock, Principles of Historical Linguistics, 2nd ed. Walter de Gruyter, 1991)